Largely made up of the Basque peoples and occupying lands on either side of the Pyrenees, the kingdom found itself caught in various conflicts between other Spanish kingdoms, France, and the Hundred Years War. The small kingdom managed outlast the other parts of the Byzantine Empire, only being conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1461.Īlso called the Kingdom of Pamplona, this small state existed from the first half of the ninth century until the sixteenth. Gradually the Order of the Teutonic Knights established their own state over the lands they were able to conquer, but after their loss to Poland-Lithuania at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 their state went into decline and was gradually portioned off to other kingdoms and states.Īfter the fall of Constantinople in 1204 to the Crusaders, several Byzantine successor states were established, including one based around the city of Trebizond along the southern coast of the Black Sea. In the thirteenth century, German crusaders launched attacks against various pagan peoples along the Baltic coast. However the independence of Cilician Armenia was short-lived – the Mongols forced them to become their client-state, and in subsequent wars with the Mamluks the kingdom was invaded and defeated, ending when its last king Levon V, was forced into exile in 1375. in 1199 its prince was able to get enough European support to elevated himself to the title of King. Around 1080 the Armenians rebelled against the Byzantine empire and established their own independent principality. The empire only lasted until 1335 when it splintered as various rivals tried to claim the throne.Īrmenian Kingdom of Cilicia © Sémhur / Wikimedia Commonsĭuring the eleventh century large numbers of Armenian refugees, fleeing from the Seljuks, established themselves in the lands around northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea. Hulagu and his descendants established the Ilkhanate, which controlled most of present-day Iran, Iraq and the Caucasus. While Hulagu was able to captured Baghdad in 1258, his forces were stopped by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. In the 1250s a Mongol army under Hulagu Khan was sent to the Middle East to capture all the lands up to the Nile River. The last king of Majorca, James III, was killed in a battle while trying to retake the islands in 1349. In 1343-4, Peter IV of Aragon invaded and captured the islands. Despite coming from the same family, relations between the rulers of Aragon and Majorca would often be tense and hostile. Upon his death in 1276, his eldest son Peter inherited the Crown of Aragon, while the second son James, became the King of Majorca. In 1229-30 the Balearic islands were captured from the Moors by King James I of Aragon. Increasing pressure from Norway and Scotland, and infighting for the throne, led to the kingdom becoming absorbed into Scotland in 1266. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries, the islands of the Hebrides, part of the Scottish coast, and the Isle of Man, were ruled by a semi-independent Kingdom of the Isles.
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